Herbal

The 4-in-1 Ayurvedic Herb Blend likely refers to a polyherbal formulation rooted in Ayurvedic medicine, which traditionally uses combinations of medicinal plants to address chronic and systemic conditions. Research indicates that Ayurvedic polyherbal formulations may offer therapeutic benefits for neurodegenerative disorders, immunostimulation, and gynecological conditions, potentially through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory mechanisms (PMID 37308092, PMID 27707902, PMID 6, PMID 5). However, the efficacy of such blends is often limited by a lack of standardization, variable phytochemical content, and insufficient high-quality human trials (PMID 15049435, PMID 12879994). A key concern with Ayurvedic herbal products is the potential for hepatotoxicity and drug-herb interactions, particularly via modulation of cytochrome P450 enzymes, which can alter the pharmacokinetics of co-administered pharmaceuticals (PMID 12879994, PMID 29165101, PMID 7). While individual herbs in such blends may have immunostimulatory or neuroprotective properties, clinical evidence remains largely preliminary and context-dependent.

Apigenin is a flavonoid found in various plants, including parsley, celery, and chamomile, and has been studied for its potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. Preclinical studies suggest that apigenin may modulate signaling pathways involved in cell proliferation, apoptosis, and inflammation, supporting its investigation as a chemopreventive agent (PMID 11302780). However, clinical evidence in humans remains limited, with no robust randomized controlled trials establishing efficacy for any specific health condition. While flavonoids like apigenin are generally considered safe when consumed in dietary amounts, the potential for toxicity with high-dose supplementation has not been fully evaluated, and concerns about product standardization and regulatory oversight remain (PMID 16780150, PMID 19815601). Further clinical development of apigenin as a dietary supplement requires rigorous phase II dose-finding and safety studies before larger phase III trials can be justified (PMID 20655991).

Apple cider vinegar (ACV) is a fermented product rich in acetic acid and polyphenolic compounds, which contribute to its potential health benefits. Research suggests that ACV may support metabolic health through mechanisms related to acetate bioavailability, which peaks within 15–30 minutes of ingestion and returns to baseline by 90 minutes, depending on the form consumed (capsule or liquid) (PMID 20924150). Animal studies indicate that apple vinegar can reduce liver damage and oxidative stress in high-fat diet models, likely due to its antioxidant polyphenol content (PMID 24115016). Additionally, ACV contains significant levels of polyphenols such as procyanidins and hydroxycinnamic acids, which vary by apple variety and fermentation method, and contribute to its free radical scavenging activity (PMID 25853952, PMID 34897991, PMID 38675570). Emerging research also highlights the potential of specialized ACVs, such as those made from anthocyanin-rich red-fleshed apples, to deliver enhanced antioxidant and biofunctional properties (PMID 39269290).

Artichoke extract (Cynara scolymus), particularly from the leaf, has been studied for its hepatoprotective, lipid-lowering, and antioxidant properties. Clinical and experimental studies support its role in improving liver function by enhancing bile flow, reducing oxidative stress, and protecting hepatocytes (PMID 26310198, PMID 34909970). It demonstrates significant antioxidant activity, which contributes to its protective effects against hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (PMID 34909970, PMID 26310198). Artichoke leaf extract (ALE) also shows modest efficacy in reducing LDL-cholesterol and total cholesterol, likely through inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase, similar to statins (PMID 22527287, PMID 30308247, PMID 31566004). Additionally, a meta-analysis of clinical trials indicates a small but significant reduction in waist circumference, suggesting potential benefits in metabolic health, though no consistent effects on body weight or BMI were observed (PMID 33197674). Despite promising preclinical data, a pilot study in chronic hepatitis C patients found no significant improvement in liver enzymes after 12 weeks of supplementation (PMID 19427774).

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), also known as Indian ginseng, is an adaptogenic herb traditionally used in Ayurvedic medicine for its neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties. Clinical and preclinical studies suggest that Ashwagandha may help reduce stress and anxiety, with a 2022 meta-analysis of 12 randomized controlled trials (n=1,002) showing a significant reduction in stress and anxiety scores with supplementation (PMID 36017529). It has demonstrated neuroprotective effects by protecting brain-derived cells against oxidative stress and promoting neuronal differentiation in vitro (PMID 26020511). Additionally, Ashwagandha exhibits anti-arthritic potential, supported by analysis of 77 registered clinical trials in India, many of which are placebo-controlled and focused on inflammatory joint conditions (PMID 34144529). Immunomodulatory effects include activation of CD4+ T cells and natural killer (NK) cells after short-term use (PMID 19388865). The bioactive compound withaferin A shows promising preclinical anti-cancer activity, particularly in B-cell lymphoma, via inhibition of NF-κB signaling and induction of oxidative stress in tumor cells (PMID 25789768, PMID 31404528).

Berberine HCl is a bioactive alkaloid derived from several medicinal plants, including Berberis species, and has been widely studied for its metabolic and anti-inflammatory effects. Clinical evidence indicates that berberine supplementation significantly improves obesity indices, including body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and body weight, with a dose-dependent effect observed in multiple randomized controlled trials (PMID 32379652). It also demonstrates beneficial effects on glycemic control, making it a potential adjunct for managing type 2 diabetes, possibly through activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which regulates cellular energy metabolism (PMID 35010998, 37675930). Additionally, berberine reduces systemic inflammation, significantly lowering serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), with effects showing a dose-response relationship (PMID 34801530, 31519292, 37675930). However, its clinical use is limited by poor oral bioavailability and gastrointestinal side effects at higher doses, prompting the development of more bioavailable forms such as dihydroberberine (PMID 35010998).

Black pepper extract, primarily standardized to piperine (an alkaloid responsible for its bioactive properties), is commonly used as a bioavailability enhancer in dietary supplements. Piperine has been shown to inhibit drug-metabolizing enzymes (e.g., CYP3A4, P-glycoprotein) and enhance the absorption of various nutrients and phytochemicals, including curcumin, selenium, and beta-carotene (PMID 19815601). While not directly therapeutic in most contexts, its primary clinical value lies in improving the pharmacokinetics of co-administered compounds. Some preclinical studies suggest potential neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antidepressant-like effects, though human clinical evidence remains limited and primarily indirect (PMID 31808709, PMID 33158220). Further research is needed to establish direct health benefits in humans.

Brassica oleracea, a species encompassing broccoli, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, kale, and cauliflower, is a rich source of bioactive compounds with chemopreventive and neuroprotective properties. The primary beneficial compounds are glucosinolates, which are hydrolyzed to isothiocyanates (ITCs) such as sulforaphane. Sulforaphane has been extensively studied for its ability to activate the Nrf2/ARE pathway, a key regulator of antioxidant and detoxifying enzymes, thereby offering protection against oxidative stress, inflammation, and carcinogenesis (PMID 16239130, PMID 38276596, PMID 26254971). Research shows that the concentration of these compounds varies with plant variety, growth stage, and processing methods, with higher levels typically found in sprouts and young plants (PMID 38276596). Additionally, Brassica oleracea contains lipid-soluble antioxidants including carotenoids, chlorophylls, and tocopherols (vitamin E), contributing to its overall health-promoting profile (PMID 22734504). These compounds collectively support cellular defense mechanisms and may reduce the risk of chronic diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.

C-Phycocyanin is a blue pigment-protein complex derived from spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. It has been studied for its potential role in protecting against oxidative stress-related conditions, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD), due to its ability to scavenge free radicals and inhibit inflammatory pathways such as COX-2 and LOX (PMID 15516188, 18669545). While direct clinical trials on c-phycocyanin for AMD or other chronic diseases in humans are limited, preclinical studies suggest it may support retinal health by reducing photo-oxidative damage and enhancing cellular defense mechanisms. However, robust human evidence is lacking, and current research does not yet support definitive therapeutic recommendations (PMID 20655991, 32759364).

Cat's Claw (Uncaria tomentosa) is a medicinal plant traditionally used in South American folk medicine for its immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiviral properties. Extracts from the bark and leaves have demonstrated significant immunostimulatory effects by enhancing the activity of human blood mononuclear cells, which play a key role in immune defense (PMID 22683905). Its anti-inflammatory effects are partly attributed to potent antioxidant activity, particularly through proanthocyanidins that scavenge reactive oxygen species generated during inflammation (PMID 15649515). Studies also show that Cat's Claw hydroalcoholic extracts exhibit antiviral and virucidal activity against chikungunya virus in vitro, suggesting potential for use in viral infections (PMID 38543735). Additionally, certain solvent extracts (e.g., ethyl acetate) induce apoptosis in human leukemia cells via reactive oxygen species production, cytochrome c release, and caspase activation, indicating anticancer potential (PMID 17619071). Animal models confirm its ability to reduce ozone-induced lung inflammation, further supporting its role in inflammatory conditions (PMID 14649123). While not a primary treatment, it has been evaluated in clinical contexts such as low back pain, though evidence remains limited and mixed (PMID 15619552, 25536022).

Catechins, particularly epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), are bioactive flavonoids found predominantly in green tea and are known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiometabolic protective properties. Clinical evidence suggests that green tea catechins can accumulate in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles and protect against LDL oxidation, a key step in atherosclerosis development (PMID 26773777). While some studies show modest improvements in endothelial function—such as increased flow-mediated dilation after acute EGCG supplementation in coronary artery disease patients (PMID 17536120)—results on systemic inflammation markers like C-reactive protein (CRP) are inconsistent, with meta-analyses showing no significant reduction (PMID 26233863). Preclinical and emerging clinical data support a role for EGCG in metabolic syndrome, including potential benefits in insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism, though long-term human trials show limited effects on adiposity or bone density (PMID 27806972, PMID 26701796). Bioavailability of catechins is moderate and time-dependent, with peak plasma concentrations observed within 1–2 hours post-consumption (PMID 15585768).

Cayenne pepper extract, derived from Capsicum species, exerts its primary biological effects through capsaicinoids—especially capsaicin and dihydrocapsiate—which interact with transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channels. These compounds demonstrate thermogenic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Clinical evidence supports its role in supporting weight management by modestly increasing satiety and reducing energy intake (PMID 24246368) and enhancing resting metabolic rate, particularly with dihydrocapsiate (PMID 20826626). Capsaicin also shows analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects in animal models, supporting traditional use for pain and inflammation (PMID 34799309). Additionally, intranasal capsaicin has been shown effective for idiopathic rhinitis (PMID 19012048). The carotenoid content in cayenne, including capsanthin and beta-carotene, contributes antioxidant activity with potential cancer-preventive properties (PMID 33260997, PMID 33337034).

Clovinol is a standardized clove extract containing 30% polyphenols, primarily eugenol and other phenolic compounds, which contribute to its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These bioactive components scavenge free radicals, inhibit oxidative stress, and modulate inflammatory pathways, supporting cellular protection and gastrointestinal health (PMID 33946293, PMID 18178017). Research indicates that clove-derived polyphenols exhibit strong radical scavenging activity, particularly against hydroxyl radicals, suggesting a role in mitigating oxidative damage linked to chronic diseases (PMID 18178017, PMID 31137464). While direct clinical trials on Clovinol are limited, evidence from plant polyphenol studies supports its potential in promoting antioxidant defense and reducing inflammation-related health risks (PMID 40563415).

Cordyceps militaris powder is a medicinal mushroom traditionally used for its immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and metabolic health benefits. Modern research highlights its bioactive polysaccharides as key contributors to its antitumor, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, and immunostimulatory effects (PMID 38224811). Studies in animal models demonstrate that aqueous extracts of C. militaris significantly reduce tumor growth in a dose-dependent manner, with inhibition rates up to 94.7% at 150 mg/kg/day in xenografted nude mice (PMID 20633505). It also exhibits antidiabetic and antinephritic activities by lowering fasting blood glucose, improving lipid profiles, and reducing kidney damage in diabetic rats when administered at doses of 0.5–2.0 g/kg/day (PMID 27274781). Additionally, C. militaris enhances antioxidant capacity, with evidence showing increased glutathione peroxidase activity and reduced oxidative stress (PMID 24748438, PMID 37522532). These effects are attributed to its rich content of polysaccharides, cordycepic acid, and bioavailable trace elements such as selenium and zinc.

Curcuma longa, commonly known as turmeric, is a herbal compound extensively studied for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. The active constituents, including curcuminoids and essential oils, have demonstrated efficacy in reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, which may underlie benefits in conditions such as chronic prostatitis, pain syndromes, and male reproductive health (PMID 28394628, PMID 12084332). Research in animal models indicates that Curcuma longa extract may protect against testicular toxicity induced by antiretroviral therapy, improving sperm motility and reducing oxidative damage markers like malondialdehyde (MDA) while enhancing glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels (PMID 33421189). Additionally, Curcuma longa essential oil has shown potent activity against hydatid cyst protoscoleces, suggesting potential antiparasitic applications (PMID 31349828). However, evidence also suggests possible anti-fertility effects at high doses in animal models, though reversibility was observed post-treatment (PMID 27681643, PMID 21090355). Overall, the compound shows promise in multiple therapeutic areas but requires further human trials to confirm efficacy and safety.

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) is a medicinal herb with a range of bioactive compounds, including polysaccharides, flavonoids (e.g., luteolin, hesperetin derivatives), sesquiterpenoids, and phenolic compounds, which contribute to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory properties (PMID 37446683, PMID 39859166). Research indicates that dandelion extract, particularly from leaves and flowers, can improve metabolic health by reducing serum triglycerides, total cholesterol, and LDL-cholesterol while increasing HDL-cholesterol in animal models of atherosclerosis and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (PMID 37836404, PMID 23603008). It also demonstrates potent anti-inflammatory effects by suppressing iNOS and COX-2 expression, thereby reducing nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 production in macrophages (PMID 15543940). Additionally, dandelion leaf extract enhances immunological responses, increasing cytokine production (IFNγ, TNFα, IL4, IL10) and regulatory T-cell markers (CD4+, CD25+) in infected mice, suggesting immune-stimulating potential (PMID 39875026). These effects are mediated through modulation of oxidative stress pathways, lipid metabolism, and inflammatory signaling, supporting its traditional use in liver and metabolic disorders.

Dihydroquercetin (DHQ), also known as taxifolin, is a flavonoid with potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. It has been studied for its potential cardiovascular and metabolic benefits, largely due to its ability to enhance endothelial function and increase nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability, which may contribute to blood pressure regulation (PMID 27169837). While most clinical research has focused on quercetin, DHQ shares structural and functional similarities, including modulation of oxidative stress and inflammation pathways implicated in cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases (PMID 25323953, PMID 31526355). Animal and in vitro studies suggest DHQ may offer superior bioavailability and antioxidant capacity compared to quercetin, though human clinical trials are limited. Evidence for lipid-lowering or antihypertensive effects remains preliminary, and no large-scale phase III trials have confirmed therapeutic efficacy in humans (PMID 31526355, PMID 27405810).

Diindolylmethane (DIM) is a metabolite derived from the breakdown of indole-3-carbinol, found in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli and cabbage. It has been studied for its potential role in cancer chemoprevention, particularly in hormone-related cancers like breast and prostate cancer. DIM modulates estrogen metabolism by promoting the conversion of estradiol to 2-hydroxyestrone (a less estrogenic metabolite) over 16α-hydroxyestrone (a more estrogenic and potentially carcinogenic form), which may reduce estrogen-driven proliferation (PMID 10720772). It also acts as a ligand for the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), influencing phase I and phase II detoxification enzymes, including induction of glutathione S-transferases and UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, supporting its classification as a phase 2 enzyme inducer (PMID 12382526). Additionally, DIM exhibits antioxidant properties and may influence signal transduction pathways involved in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, contributing to its tumor-suppressing effects in preclinical models (PMID 10720772, 12382526). However, human clinical evidence remains limited, and most data are derived from in vitro and animal studies.

Dried Tangerine Peel, known as Chen Pi in traditional Chinese medicine, is derived from the aged peel of citrus fruits, primarily *Citrus reticulata*. It is commonly used for its digestive, anti-inflammatory, and respiratory-supportive properties. Bioactive compounds such as flavonoids (e.g., nobiletin, hesperidin) and volatile oils contribute to its pharmacological effects, including modulation of gastrointestinal motility, antioxidant activity, and anti-cough effects. While not directly studied in isolation across the provided papers, Dried Tangerine Peel is a frequent component in multi-herb formulations for respiratory conditions such as post-infectious cough and digestive complaints (PMID 29231362). Its use in traditional formulations suggests a role in promoting lung qi and resolving phlegm, though high-quality clinical trials on the isolated powder are lacking. Evidence for standalone efficacy remains limited to preclinical studies and traditional use.

Fenugreek extract, derived from Trigonella foenum-graecum, has demonstrated potential health benefits in preclinical and clinical studies, particularly in metabolic and oncological contexts. Animal studies indicate that fenugreek seed extract exhibits chemopreventive properties against breast cancer, significantly reducing DMBA-induced mammary hyperplasia and tumor incidence, possibly through induction of apoptosis (PMID 15936223). Additional research highlights its bioactive components—including saponins, flavonoids, and polyphenols—as contributors to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective effects (PMID 28391170, PMID 8). In a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, fenugreek seed consumption was associated with significant reductions in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, suggesting a role in cardiovascular health (PMID 36763260). The protective effects against ethanol-induced liver cell toxicity further support its potential in mitigating oxidative stress and cellular damage (PMID 16574673).

Ferulic acid is a plant-derived phenolic compound with potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-modulating properties. It is naturally abundant in whole grains such as rice, wheat, and rye bran and is also available as a dietary supplement. Clinical evidence shows that ferulic acid supplementation (1000 mg/day for 6 weeks) significantly improves lipid profiles by reducing total cholesterol, LDL-C, and triglycerides, while increasing HDL-C in hyperlipidemic individuals (PMID 29865227). It also reduces oxidative stress and systemic inflammation, suggesting a protective role in cardiovascular disease (PMID 29865227, 33402085). Additionally, oral ferulic acid (200 mg/day for 2 weeks) improves skin barrier function by reducing transepidermal water loss and increasing stratum corneum hydration in healthy individuals (PMID 33973806). These effects may be mediated through modulation of redox-sensitive pathways and enhancement of endogenous antioxidant defenses (PMID 33402085).

Ginger powder, derived from the rhizome of Zingiber officinale, is widely used for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiemetic properties. Clinical evidence supports its use in reducing nausea and vomiting, particularly in the context of chemotherapy-induced nausea (CINV) and migraine-related symptoms. A meta-analysis found ginger significantly reduced the risk of migraine-related nausea and vomiting (RR, 0.48; 95% CI, 0.30–0.77) and showed potential for achieving pain freedom within 2 hours of migraine onset (RR, 1.79; 95% CI, 1.04–3.09) (PMID 34851560). In patients with type 2 diabetes, 3 grams of ginger powder daily for 8 weeks significantly improved fasting blood sugar, HbA1c, insulin sensitivity, and HOMA-IR (PMID 24559810). Ginger also demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects in osteoarthritis, significantly reducing serum TNF-α and IL-1β levels after 3 months of 500 mg daily supplementation (PMID 27559855). The bioactive compounds, primarily gingerols and shogaols, vary in concentration depending on processing methods, with dried ginger containing higher levels of shogaols due to thermal conversion (PMID 38102859, PMID 32663000).

Ginkgo biloba extract, particularly the standardized form EGb 761, has been extensively studied for its potential cognitive and neuroprotective effects. While it does not appear to enhance cognitive function in healthy individuals, meta-analyses suggest it may help stabilize or slow cognitive decline in people with cognitive impairment, dementia, or Alzheimer's disease (PMID 25352453, 23001963). The mechanisms underlying these effects include antioxidant activity from flavonoids, improved cerebral blood flow, and neuroprotection through modulation of amyloid pathology and mitochondrial function (PMID 7, 4). Ginkgo extract may also offer benefits in glaucoma due to its antioxidant and vascular protective properties (PMID 4). However, nootropic benefits in healthy adults are not supported by current evidence (PMID 17480002, 23001963).

Grape extract, particularly from seeds and skins, is rich in polyphenolic compounds such as proanthocyanidins, catechins, and resveratrol, which contribute to its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (PMID 33202575, 34798267). These bioactive components help reduce oxidative stress, improve endothelial function, and modulate lipid metabolism, supporting cardiovascular health. Clinical evidence indicates that grape seed extract (GSE) supplementation significantly reduces diastolic blood pressure and heart rate, suggesting a beneficial role in managing cardiovascular risk factors (PMID 34798267). Additionally, GSE shows potential neuroprotective effects and may support gastrointestinal health, although its impact on glucose metabolism remains inconclusive (PMID 33202575, 31062633). Despite mixed findings on oxidative stress biomarkers, some meta-analyses report increased total antioxidant capacity with grape product intake (PMID 34107109, 33712024).

Green coffee bean extract (GCBE) is rich in chlorogenic acid, a polyphenol with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and metabolic regulatory properties. Clinical evidence suggests GCBE supplementation may support cardiovascular and metabolic health by modestly reducing blood pressure, improving lipid profiles, and aiding weight management. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials found that GCBE significantly lowers systolic blood pressure (SBP) by ~2.95 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) by ~2.15 mmHg, with greater effects observed at doses ≥400 mg/day and in individuals with baseline hypertension (PMID 38227783, 31429515, 39368321). GCBE also significantly reduces total cholesterol (WMD: -4.51 mg/dL) and LDL cholesterol, while increasing HDL cholesterol (PMID 31748178, 34981487). A 12-week trial with a patented 70% chlorogenic acid extract (GCB70®) showed significant reductions in body weight, BMI, waist circumference, and plasma leptin in overweight individuals, suggesting a role in healthy weight management (PMID 38227783). Additionally, animal studies indicate GCBE enhances antioxidant defenses by boosting glutathione (GSH) biosynthesis and may offer radioprotective effects (PMID 30654098, 34048991). A single 100 mg dose of whole coffee fruit extract (a form of GCBE) increased plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) by 143%, suggesting potential neuroprotective effects (PMID 23312069).

Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) is a herbal remedy traditionally used for cardiovascular support, particularly in the management of mild to moderate heart failure. Bioactive constituents such as flavonoids and oligomeric procyanidins are believed to exert antioxidant effects, improve coronary blood flow, and modulate cardiac contractility. Clinical studies suggest hawthorn may improve exercise tolerance, reduce fatigue, and alleviate symptoms of heart failure, although evidence remains mixed and further high-quality trials are needed (PMID 18928147, PMID 22996324). There is limited evidence for other uses, and research does not currently support its use for dental caries prevention or rheumatic diseases. Due to variability in herbal preparations and potential interactions with cardiovascular medications, caution is advised when combining hawthorn with drugs such as beta-blockers, digoxin, or antiarrhythmics (PMID 24525006).

Leucoselect phytosome is a standardized grape seed procyanidin extract complexed with soy phospholipids to enhance bioavailability. It has been studied primarily for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential chemopreventive properties. Preclinical and early clinical evidence suggests that Leucoselect may modulate pathways involved in carcinogenesis, including reducing cellular proliferation and oxidative stress. In a pilot study involving heavy smokers, Leucoselect phytosome was administered for 3 months and showed acceptable safety and potential biological activity in lung tissue, with trends toward reduced Ki-67 labeling index, a marker of cell proliferation (PMID 31138523). Grape seed extracts, including Leucoselect, are rich in flavonoids and procyanidins, which contribute to vascular protection by improving endothelial function and reducing oxidative damage, suggesting potential cardiovascular benefits (PMID 17073843, PMID 7, PMID 22316271). These mechanisms support its use as a dietary supplement for antioxidant support and possible cancer chemoprevention, though larger clinical trials are needed to confirm efficacy.

Longjack extract, derived from the plant *Eurycoma longifolia*, is traditionally used for its potential anti-inflammatory and testosterone-enhancing properties. While some natural products have demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects in preclinical studies, specific high-quality clinical evidence for Longjack remains limited (PMID 27706084). It has been explored in the context of male reproductive health and chronic prostatitis due to proposed phytotherapeutic mechanisms, though robust placebo-controlled trials are lacking to confirm efficacy (PMID 12084332, PMID 7). The use of herbal supplements like Longjack must be approached with caution due to the potential for hepatotoxicity, as highlighted in reviews on herbal and dietary supplement-induced liver injury (PMID 27842768, PMID 8). Currently, there is insufficient evidence to support definitive therapeutic dosing or broad health benefits.

Luteolin is a naturally occurring flavonoid found in various plants and foods, such as celery, peppers, and chamomile, with emerging evidence supporting its neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Pre-clinical studies indicate that luteolin modulates key cellular pathways involved in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s, by reducing neuroinflammation, scavenging reactive oxygen species, and protecting mitochondrial function. It promotes mitochondrial biogenesis, enhances ATP production, and induces mitophagy, suggesting a role in maintaining neuronal energy homeostasis and preventing neurodegeneration (PMID 38091364, PMID 38904713, PMID 40154935). Luteolin has also been investigated as an adjunct in viral infections like COVID-19 due to its immunomodulatory effects (PMID 33949266). However, concerns exist regarding its endocrine-disrupting potential, with evidence showing it acts as a progesterone antagonist and estrogen agonist, which may pose risks in hormone-sensitive conditions (PMID 23836117). Despite promising mechanistic data, clinical evidence in humans remains limited, and optimal dosing has not been established through rigorous phase II trials (PMID 33949266, PMID 20655991).

Milk thistle extract, primarily composed of silymarin and its main active constituent silybin (silibinin), has been used for over 2,000 years as a hepatoprotective agent. Silymarin exhibits antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antifibrotic, immunomodulating, and liver-regenerating properties, supporting its traditional use in liver diseases such as alcoholic liver disease, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), viral hepatitis, and drug-induced liver injury (PMID 30080294, 5). Clinical studies suggest potential benefits in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), with a randomized trial showing improved liver enzymes and histological markers at higher doses (PMID 31536511). Additionally, silymarin demonstrates chemopreventive and adjuvant anticancer effects by modulating apoptosis, cell cycle regulators, and inflammation, particularly in prostate, breast, and gastrointestinal cancers (PMID 34399200, 24338188, 23588585). Its use in combination with chemotherapy agents like doxorubicin may enhance efficacy while reducing toxicity to normal tissues (PMID 24338188).

Organic Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) is an adaptogenic herb traditionally used in Ayurvedic medicine to support stress resilience and overall well-being. Clinical evidence indicates that Ashwagandha root extract helps modulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, reducing cortisol levels and improving symptoms of stress and anxiety. A randomized controlled trial found that doses as low as 125 mg/day of a water-extracted root and leaf extract significantly reduced perceived stress in chronically stressed adults over 8 weeks (PMID 38732539). Additional studies support its anxiolytic effects, with improvements in anxiety symptoms observed with standardized root extracts (PMID 19718255). Ashwagandha also demonstrates neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties, potentially benefiting cognitive function and sleep quality (PMID 40647248). Its bioactive withanolides, particularly withaferin A, have shown pre-clinical anti-cancer activity in gliomas and B-cell lymphoma models by inhibiting NF-κB signaling and inducing apoptosis (PMID 41226232, PMID 26020511). Pharmacokinetic data confirm oral bioavailability of key compounds in humans after single-dose administration (PMID 38122911).

Organic Moringa leaf powder (Moringa oleifera) is a nutrient-dense botanical supplement traditionally used for its medicinal and nutritional properties. It is rich in protein, vitamins (including A, C, and E), minerals (such as calcium and iron), and bioactive polyphenols like flavonoids and phenolic acids, which contribute to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects (PMID 34972169, PMID 28830411, PMID 33822798). Clinical evidence suggests that Moringa oleifera supplementation may improve glucose control in individuals with prediabetes, with studies showing reductions in fasting blood glucose and HbA1c (PMID 32664295, PMID 35565903). It may also support immune function and improve anthropometric parameters in malnourished populations, including adults with HIV on antiretroviral therapy (PMID 34972169, PMID 28830411). Additionally, preliminary evidence indicates a potential galactagogue effect, though further research is needed to confirm its efficacy in increasing breastmilk volume (PMID 33822798).

Pumpkin seed oil is derived from seeds of Cucurbita spp. and is rich in phytosterols, polyunsaturated fatty acids (particularly linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids), and bioactive compounds such as polyphenols. It has been studied primarily for its beneficial effects on lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Clinical evidence suggests pumpkin seed oil may improve urinary function and reduce symptom severity, potentially through anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, and hormonal modulation mechanisms (PMID 38411727, 28367773). Experimental studies also show that pumpkin seed extracts inhibit proliferation and induce autophagy in prostate cancer cells, suggesting potential chemopreventive properties (PMID 33978471). Additionally, dietary supplementation with pumpkin seeds improves fatty acid profiles, increasing n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, which may contribute to cardiovascular and metabolic health (PMID 24578648). While not yet strongly recommended in major clinical guidelines due to heterogeneity in formulations and limited long-term trials, pumpkin seed oil is well-tolerated and increasingly used as part of phytotherapeutic approaches for mild-to-moderate LUTS (PMID 31852006, 12426861).

Red orange extract (ROC), derived from Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck, is a standardized botanical extract rich in anthocyanins, flavonoids, and other polyphenolic compounds that contribute to its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These bioactive constituents help mitigate oxidative stress by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), enhancing endogenous antioxidant defenses such as glutathione (GSH), and reducing inflammatory markers like tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) (PMID 36296919, 19023818). Clinical studies demonstrate that supplementation with red orange extract improves antioxidant status in populations exposed to environmental stressors, including elderly individuals and traffic police officers exposed to air pollution, as evidenced by reduced serum d-ROMs and increased erythrocyte GSH levels (PMID 36296919, 19023818). The anthocyanins in red orange, primarily cyanidin-3-glucoside and peonidin-3-glucoside, are well-absorbed and contribute to cardiovascular protection through anti-inflammatory, vasoprotective, and lipid-stabilizing mechanisms (PMID 22211184, 36557809). Additionally, compounds in orange peel, including vitamin C, phenolics, and flavonoids, exhibit strong free radical scavenging activity, supporting the use of whole-extract formulations for enhanced bioactivity (PMID 39605110, 41163603).

Rhodiola extract, primarily derived from Rhodiola rosea or Rhodiola crenulata, is an adaptogenic herb traditionally used to enhance physical and mental resilience under stress. It contains bioactive compounds such as salidroside and rosavins, which are believed to modulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, reduce oxidative stress, and exert anti-inflammatory effects (PMID 27848900, 31481002). Some clinical evidence suggests potential benefits in fatigue reduction and exercise tolerance, although study quality has been variable, with several trials showing methodological limitations (PMID 19468971). Preliminary research indicates possible supportive roles in metabolic health, ischemic heart disease, and chronic inflammatory conditions like COPD, but findings remain inconclusive due to small sample sizes and inconsistent methodologies (PMID 26098419, 25146085, 36397379). Overall, Rhodiola is well tolerated in studied doses, but more rigorous trials are needed to confirm its therapeutic efficacy.

Senna, derived from the leaves and pods of Senna alexandrina, is a stimulant laxative commonly used for the short-term management of constipation. Its active compounds, sennosides, are metabolized by colonic bacteria into active aglycones that stimulate colonic motility and increase fluid secretion, promoting bowel movements (PMID 25392579). Clinical studies support its efficacy in bowel preparation for colonoscopy, where regimens including senna (e.g., 180 mg tablets or 24 tablets of 12 mg) have demonstrated comparable or improved cleansing quality when combined with other agents like magnesium citrate or PEG (PMID 17006995, PMID 19360920, PMID 8393219). Senna has also been used effectively in pediatric populations for idiopathic constipation, with dosing titrated to achieve daily bowel movements (PMID 29079312). Additionally, senna glycoside has shown potential in reducing serum potassium levels in hemodialysis patients, likely by decreasing colonic potassium reabsorption (PMID 38318690).

Shilajit is a traditional Ayurvedic medicinal substance composed of humic substances and fulvic acid, derived from organic plant material compressed in rock layers of mountain ranges, particularly the Himalayas. It has been used for centuries in folk medicine for its purported adaptogenic, anti-inflammatory, and energy-enhancing properties. Emerging research suggests that shilajit may support mitochondrial function and cellular energy production, primarily through its dibenzo-alpha-pyrones and fulvic acid content, which may enhance electron transport chain activity (PMID 10930714). Some clinical evidence indicates potential benefits in male fertility, cognitive function, and chronic fatigue, though larger, high-quality trials are needed to confirm these effects. Due to variability in sourcing and composition, standardization and quality control remain significant concerns (PMID 24525006, PMID 11795086).

Tribulus terrestris is a herbal supplement traditionally used for its potential effects on cardiovascular health, male sexual function, and metabolic parameters. Preclinical studies suggest that Tribulus extract may exert antihypertensive effects through inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity in vascular and renal tissues, as demonstrated in hypertensive rat models (PMID 14519445). Some animal studies report increases in free serum testosterone following administration of Tribulus alatus fruit extracts, particularly chloroformic and ethanolic fractions, suggesting possible androgen-enhancing properties (PMID 17767762). However, human clinical evidence does not consistently support these effects; a randomized controlled trial in men with unexplained infertility found no significant changes in total or free testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), or semen parameters after 750 mg/day of Tribulus terrestris for three months (PMID 27337519). Another double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in men with erectile dysfunction showed no significant improvement in sexual function compared to placebo (PMID 28364864). Additionally, alcoholic extracts of Tribulus species have demonstrated hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects in diabetic rat models, with reductions in fasting glucose, HbA1c, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL (PMID 17907744). Despite promising preclinical findings, current clinical evidence does not support strong efficacy of Tribulus terrestris for enhancing testosterone or treating male infertility or erectile dysfunction.

Tribulus terrestris (TT) is an herbal supplement traditionally used to support male reproductive health and sexual function. Despite its popularity as an aphrodisiac and testosterone-boosting agent, clinical evidence does not support a significant effect on androgen levels in healthy men. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial found no improvement in erectile dysfunction or sexual desire with TT supplementation compared to placebo, despite marketing claims (PMID 28364864). Similarly, a human study showed no influence of TT extract on serum testosterone, androstenedione, or luteinizing hormone levels over a 4-week period (PMID 14535016). In animal models, TT did not improve sperm concentration, motility, or testicular morphology at a dose of 100 mg/kg body weight (PMID 37695239), although in vitro studies demonstrated enhanced human sperm motility and viability when semen was directly incubated with TT extract at 40–50 µg/mL (PMID 27694560). Additionally, saponins from TT have shown lipid-lowering effects in hyperlipidemic mice, reducing serum and liver total cholesterol and LDL-c (PMID 14535016). However, overall evidence does not support a systemic anabolic or hormonal effect in humans, and TT may not alter urinary steroid profiles significantly based on preliminary data (PMID 41005195).

Turmeric extract, derived from Curcuma longa, is a widely studied herbal supplement known for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and potential metabolic benefits. Its primary bioactive compounds, curcuminoids (especially curcumin), have demonstrated the ability to reduce oxidative stress by inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) production in microglial cells, suggesting neuroprotective potential (PMID 35164047). Clinical evidence supports its use in reducing inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers in osteoarthritis of the knee, with a 4-month randomized trial showing significant improvements compared to placebo (PMID 27761693). Additionally, turmeric and curcumin supplementation may improve lipid profiles, including reductions in total cholesterol, LDL-C, and triglycerides, particularly in individuals with cardiovascular risk factors (PMID 29020971). In individuals with prediabetes and type 2 diabetes, turmeric/curcumin supplementation has shown modest but significant reductions in anthropometric indices such as body weight and BMI, suggesting anti-obesity potential (PMID 40813857). However, poor oral bioavailability due to low solubility, rapid metabolism, and excretion remains a major limitation, prompting the development of enhanced formulations like curcumagalactomannoside (CGM) to improve systemic delivery and efficacy (PMID 36655498, 32635279). Topical applications of curcumin have also shown promise in managing skin conditions due to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties, though clinical data remain limited (PMID 38008088). Safety concerns include potential hepatotoxicity with high-dose or poorly formulated products, emphasizing the need for standardized, well-tolerated preparations (PMID 35040331).